Click here to read blogs by Mike Jess on Primary Physical Education.
What might the COVID pandemic mean for the SERA PE network (ScotPERN). Blog by Nicola Carse and Shirley Gray
What might the COVID pandemic mean for the SERA PE network (ScotPERN)
For physical education (PE), the COVID-19 pandemic presents many challenges but also opportunities. Reflecting on the information we have on the way COVID-19 spreads and the associated social distancing measures in relation to PE, it emphasises the physical and social nature of the subject. As much of the teaching and learning in PE is based on interaction and collaboration it has made it difficult to envisage how to approach teaching the subject. However, during the initial phase of lockdown teachers made increasing use of technology to set physical challenges in an attempt to motivate and engage pupils and with the reopening of schools more use has been made of outdoor contexts for teaching.
During lockdown, the physical activity dimension of PE was also promoted through the emergence, of the phenomenon of: ‘Joe Wicks as the nation’s PE teacher’. We will not discuss this phenomenon in detail here, please see a recent BERA blog post by Stirrup, Hooper, Sandford, Harris, Casey, and Cale (2020) that discusses the implications of this for PE. The main concern for PE through this conflation with physical activity and physical health is that it reduces PE to simplistic notions of skills and fitness combined with uncritical understandings of health. This narrow perspective of PE limits the potential it holds for engaging pupils in a broad range of learning experiences. It also publicly reinforces traditionally held views that PE is primarily physical, non-cognitive, non-academic and, therefore, positioned on the margins of the curriculum.
Within a Scottish context the work of academics linked to the SERA PE network (ScotPERN) emphasises the complex nature of PE and the need for research within the area to enhance learning opportunities for pupils. Carse et al. (2018) explore the multiple stakeholders and understandings of PE circulating within society and emphasise the need for a renewed focus on the holistic and educational value of the subject. Recognsing the holistic nature of learning within PE, Gray, MacIsaac and Jess (2015) discuss the ways in which it is possible to reach a number of educational outcomes in PE, including those that are social, emotional and cognitive, by for example considering pupil-centred, critical and embodied pedagogies. Kirk and colleagues develop these ideas further by conducting research exploring how PE teachers in Scotland enact pedagogies of affect. That is, teaching approaches that promote the development of personal and social resources, supporting both learning and wellbeing in meaningful contexts (Teraoka et al., 2020). Described as a pedagogy of affect, the teaching model Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility has been investigated by Gray along with local secondary school teachers. This is a pedagogical model developed to promote social and emotional skills in PE, and is associated with a number of positive student outcomes including improved behaviour and attitudes as well as improved responsibility and life skills (Gray, Wright, Sievewright & Robertson, 2019).
This focus on pedagogy, along with the involvement of teachers in the research process, is a useful starting point for future research, as teachers in Scotland grapple with how to teach PE faced with the physical, environmental, social, emotional and personal challenges that living through a pandemic creates. Positively, within this context we see an opportunity for teachers to work alongside researchers and with pupils, to engage in reflective and critical inquiry processes that encourage them to consider, not only pedagogies of affect, but creative, innovative and inclusive practices that shift traditional conceptions of what PE is and who it is for. This collaborative approach offers the potential to develop curricula and pedagogies that provide pupils with opportunities to move, learn and connect in multiple contexts, for example rural, urban and even digital settings. This could also encourage more interdisciplinary learning opportunities, a key feature of Curriculum for Excellence that has had limited traction to date.
We conclude by considering where next for PE research, we suggest that COVID-19 poses questions in relation to:
- digital learning and digital literacy within PE;
- the conceptualisation and positioning of health and wellbeing within the curriculum and in relation to PE, and
- new and creative approaches and spaces for teaching and learning within PE.
References
Carse, N., Jess, M., & Keay, J. (2018). Primary PE: Shifting perspectives to move forwards. European PE Review, 24(4), 487-502.
Gray, S., Wright, P., Sievwright, R., & Robertson, S. (2019). Learning to Use Teaching for Personal and Social Responsibility Through Action Research. Journal of Teaching in PE.
Gray, S., MacIsaac, S., & Jess, M. (2015). Teaching ‘Health’ in PE in a ‘Healthy’ Way. RETOS: Nuevas tendenies en Educacion Fisica Deportes y Recreacion, 28, 165-172. http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/article/view/34950/19218
Stirrup, J., Hooper, O., Sandford, R., Harris, J., Casey, A. & Cale, L. (2020). BERA blog, part of series: Covid-19, education and educational research. 20/06/2020. ‘PE’ with Joe (Bloggs): The rise and risks of celebrity ‘teachers. [Online]. [08/09/2020]. Available from: https://www.bera.ac.uk/blog/pe-with-joe-bloggs-the-rise-and-risks-of-celebrity-teachers
Teraoka, E., Ferreira, H. J., Kirk, D., & Bardid, F. (2020). Affective learning in PE: a systematic review. Journal of Teaching in PE. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2019-0164
Global Moves: Connecting the World of Primary Physical Education
Dr. Mike Jess is a Senior Lecturer in Physical Education at the University of Edinburgh. In this blog, he describes how he has come to realise his vision (in collaboration with colleagues at Edinburgh and beyond) to develop an international community for primary physical education – this is Global Moves.
Follow us on Twitter @GlobalMovesPE
Introduction
Four years ago, a teacher attending one of our professional learning courses challenged us to create a website that would help support primary physical education. Since then, as a group of teacher educators, we have grappled to come up with the best way to connect primary physical education across the world. Global Moves is the outcome.
Global Moves: The Vision
Global Moves is based on a vision for primary physical education as a holistic educational learning experience for all children. Primary physical education seeks to connect children’s lives and helps set a foundation for their lifelong and life-wide involvement in physical activity. However, primary physical education is a complex learning experience.
- Primary physical education is not just about physical exercise for health: but that’s part of it!!
- Primary physical education is not just about sport: but that’s part of it!!
- Primary physical education is not just about having fun by yourself or with friends: but that’s part of it!!
Learning in primary physical education is not an easy option: it is about ‘real learning’ involving a complex mix of the physical, cognitive, social and emotional.
Developing primary physical education to set a positive foundation for the future is a complex, collaborative and ongoing task: it can’t be left to chance.
Global Moves is our way of contributing to the future of primary physical education as a gateway to children’s lifelong and life-wide participation in physical activity.
Who is Global Moves for?
Global Moves is for everyone with an interest in the development of primary physical education. We believe that everyone has a role to play in putting primary physical education at the heart of children’s learning. This includes the following:
- The Children who take part in physical education
- Parents, carers, grandparents and siblings who support children’s physical education, sport and physical activity
- Teachers and early years practitioners who support children’s physical education learning
- Coaches who support physical education, sport and physical activity in school and the community
- Head teachers/principals and senior leaders who create the local culture to develop primary physical education
- Community practitioners/coaches and clubs who teach and support children’s life-wide physical education outside school
- Teacher educators and professional development providers who support the professional learning of all those involved in the development of primary physical education
- Academics and researchers who create new ways to thinking about and investigate primary physical education
- National governing bodies who support large scale national and local developments in children’s physical education, sport and physical activity
- Policy Makers who design the education policies to frame the primary physical education curriculum
Global Moves seeks to connect everyone with an interest in children’s physical education.
Global Moves: Making the Connections
Over the next two years, the first phase of the Global Moves project focuses on the different ways to connect as many people as possible. We already have a presence on twitter (@GlobalMovesPE) and, over the next two years, will share ideas about primary physical education in the following ways
- Blogs, vlogs, podcasts and webinars
- The Global Moves Website (to launch in 2021)
- Professional development courses
- Publications: academic, research and professional
- Collaborations and consultancies
Global Moves is not a ‘quick fix’ but part of the long term journey to put primary physical education at the heart of primary schools across the world. Please work with us on this journey.
Lesson study: It’s not new!! by Paul McMillan, Mike Jess and Wilma Irvine
Dr. Paul McMillan is a Lecturer in Physical Education at the University of Edinburgh. Along with his colleagues, including Mike Jess and Wilma Irvine, they have been exploring the potential of Lesson Study as a teacher-led approach to professional learning. In this blog, they describe the key elements of Lesson Study and highlight some of the recent developments in the Scottish context.
Lesson study: It’s not new!! by Paul McMillan, Mike Jess and Wilma Irvine
Lesson Study originated in Japan in the late-19th century as a teacher-led approach to professional learning. However, it took over 100 years to reach the wider world. In a global search for the best ideas known to improve classroom practice, Stigler and Hiebert (1999) uncovered a well-established Lesson Study culture that had historically been presented as the reason for Japan’s strong education performances across international league tables. Since then Lesson Study has spread rapidly across many countries and is now used to enhance teaching and learning in schools, particularly in literacy and numeracy.
What Is Lesson Study?
Lesson Study is a situated form of ‘real’ professional learning. Groups of teachers meet regularly to execute ‘research lessons’ that are taught to their own students in their own classrooms. Each ‘research lesson’ involves key elements:
- A focus on specific issues or topics chosen by the teachers;
- Detailed planning, usually with one or more colleagues;
- Observation of student engagement during the lesson by other teachers;
- Recording of student interviews after the lesson;
- A post-lesson ‘colloquium’ involving Lesson Study group members, other colleagues, administrators, and/or invited individuals.
Lesson Study is best viewed as a ‘cycle’ (see Figure 1). Critically, across several cycles, teachers work collaboratively to investigate aspects of their teaching to improve classroom practices (Dudley, 2015). Two features of this Lesson Study cycle – observation and reflection – are worthy of special mention.
Figure 1: Lesson Study Cycle (adapted from Dudley, 2015)
A Special Word On Observation
Observation is a widespread practice in schools. The conventional approach tends to involve teachers being evaluated annually by their line manager to confirm that their practice is of a satisfactory standard. These occasional high stakes observations, with their emphasis on auditing competence, often cause teachers much distress (Donaldson, 2016). In contrast, Lesson Study positions observation in a completely different light. It becomes a regular feature of school life and is realigned as a more productive form of professional learning because:
- There is collaborative planning with others, including the observers, ahead of the ‘research lesson’.
- There is a shared focus for inquiry to align the observation of ‘research lessons’ to an agreed area of interest.
- The observer maintains a focus on the students, rather than the teacher, during the ‘research lesson’ to gain insights about the teaching practice.
This shift in emphasis for observation is an important, long term feature of teachers’ professional learning.
Reflection: (Re)acknowledging The Potential
The term ‘reflection’ is common in education settings. In fact, it is so common that it seems to have lost a bit of traction in recent times. We want to refresh readers about the potential reflection offers for teacher-led professional learning. The Lesson Study ‘colloquium’ provides a safe space for teachers to reflect on their observations. This opportunity to reflect is important because it fosters a deeper understanding of the student learning displayed during the ‘research lesson’. Critically, the purpose of this post-lesson discussion is not to assess a teacher’s practice, but to collectively reflect on the observations made about the learning process. The emphasis is on the whole group of teachers involved in the cycle and not just the teacher who taught the ‘research lesson’. Subsequently, the Lesson Study process demands teachers reflect in collaboration with others and this seems to have more power than reflecting alone (Day, 1993). Challenging misconceptions, confronting underlying value systems, developing a wider range of possibilities, tackling difficult practice issues: all are more likely to happen when reflecting with others (Day, 1993). This collaborative form of reflection is a chance for teachers to learn with and from each other (Dudley, 2015). It can help teachers strengthen their ability to reflect upon and challenge their practice as professionals.
Lesson Study: Next Steps
Currently, the Lesson Study hotspots are Japan, China, U.S.A, and parts of mainland Europe. While our own Scottish context may not be there yet, there are encouraging signs on two fronts. Firstly, the existing policy context advances ‘practitioner inquiry’ as central to the work of teachers. Lesson Study, therefore, provides a clear framework for teachers and school leaders to support a form of inquiry that fosters these policy ambitions for reflection and the active interpretation of data to enhance practice. And secondly, to the best of our knowledge, there are now a number of schools and individual practitioners in Scotland starting to experiment with Lesson Study. A recent round table discussion at the Scottish Educational Research Association (SERA) annual conference (McMillan et al., 2019) was a chance for these Scottish pioneers of Lesson Study to present the successes and challenges of their work. Thus, as Lesson Study continues its spread across the globe, we are confident that developments will soon see Scotland become another hotspot!!
References
Day, C. (1993) Reflection: a necessary but not sufficient condition for professional development. British Educational Research Journal, Vol. 19:1, pp. 83-93.
Donaldson, M. L. (2016) Teacher evaluation reform: focus, feedback, and fear. Educational Leadership, Vol. 73: 8, pp. 72–76.
Dudley, P. (2015) (Ed.) Lesson Study: professional learning for our time. London: Routledge.
Grimm, E.D., Kaufman, T. and Doty, D. (2014) Rethinking classroom observation. Educational Leadership, Vol. 71: 8, pp. 24–29.
McMillan, P.; Jess, M.; Irvine, W.; Murray, J.; Smedley, B.; Docherty, J.; Stepney, K. and Arnold, L. (2019) Lesson Study as professional learning: empowering practitioners to produce and use evidence to inform practice. Roundtable Discussion, SERA Conference, Moray House School of Education and Sport, Edinburgh, Scotland: 20 November 2019.
Stigler, J.W. and Hiebert, J. (1999) The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York: The Free Press.
Physical education and educational values: at what price? Blog written by Dr. Malcolm Thorburn
Dr. Malcolm Thorburn is a Lecturer in Physical Education at the University of Edinburgh. In this short blog, he offers this thoughts on privatisation reforms in the context of physical education.
Physical education and educational values: at what price?
One day many years ago as a young Principal Teacher of Physical Education I was watching one of the school football teams with some colleagues when I mentioned in the passing that our schools football kit was a bit tatty compared with the visiting team. The Principal Teacher of Modern Studies gestured across to the local small town garage and said ‘Why don’t you go across there and ask them to sponsor the school team and buy you a new set of football strips.’ I had trouble even countenancing such an idea. If the school was keen to have sports teams then they needed to fund them out of the school budget. I could not see that it was part of my job to go round local businesses asking for sponsorship and funding.
I was reminded of this moment recently when I was asked to review a series of Australian-based papers on privatisation reforms and health work (including physical education) in schools. What became apparent quite immediately was the advanced state of reforms and of how health work in schools seems particularly ripe for privatisation initiatives. This had many ramifications including implications for curriculum support, professional development, ownership and control over curriculum content and the extent to which teachers’ expertise was valued.
I was particularly engrossed with one large secondary school in an area of high social deprivation where McDonald’s corporate link with the school has progressed from sponsoring sports teams to sponsoring school-based apprenticeships, then positive behaviour programmes, and eventually to creating and sharing common values. This situation seems to reflect Windle’s (2017) concerns that disadvantaged schools in Australia have often needed to embrace privatisation albeit reluctantly such is the need to keep trying to boost the profile of schools whenever possible. Still, at least the ongoing commitment to comprehensive provision in Scotland, being as it is ‘a reflection of democracy and communal solidarity and demonstration that opportunities to succeed should be available to all learners’ (Bryce & Humes, 2013, p. 51) should mean that the visible culture of schools are unlikely to be dominated by two big yellow arches for some time yet.
However, is it possible in tight economic times that teachers may well need to work out where their own lines of professional acceptability and unacceptability are drawn? Certainly, the main point I’ve reflected on recently is that while my own educational values have remained quite similar over the decades (slightly left leaning and troubled by issues over advantage and disadvantage in education), my decision making about what to do in certain situations has probably changed. Faced now with the professional dilemma over tired sports kit and what to do about it, I think I would be more inclined to ask the local garage owner for sponsorship support than previously. All up a case of similar values but different decision-making. Time changes things – sometimes.
References
Bryce, T.G.K. and Humes, W.H. (2013) The Distinctiveness of Scottish Education. In: T.G.K. Bryce, W.H. Humes, D. Gillies & A. Kennedy (Eds.), Scottish Education. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.
Windle, J. A. (2017) The Burdens of Marketized Schooling in Australia: Cherry Picking, Poaching, and Gaming the Curriculum. In: S.N. Bekisizwe & C. Lubienski (Eds) Privatisation and the education of marginalised children: policies, impacts and global lessons. New York: Routledge.
Playing for hope: Investigating the success of physical activity in alleviating the post traumatic struggles of child refugees by Eilidh MacGilp
Eilidh has recently graduated from the MA Physical Education programme at the University of Edinburgh. In the summer of 2018, she worked at a refugee camp in Greece to develop a daily sports programme for the children living on the camp. For her final year research investigation, she documented the impact that this programme had on the lives of those young people.
Playing for hope: Investigating the success of physical activity in alleviating the post traumatic struggles of child refugees
One of the most striking realities of our time is the sharp and continuous rise in the number of people worldwide forced to flee their homes as a result of war, natural disaster, torture and other systematic human rights violations (UNHRC, 2018). Approximately 68.5 million people have been forcibly displaced worldwide, with children making up 51% of this population (Nocon et al., 2017). UNICEF recognise the risk of these young people becoming the ‘lost generation’ as a serious concern (UNICEF, 2013). Denied the fundamental means to guarantee a healthy psycho-social development, it has been well documented that children exposed to war and violence are more likely to develop mental health problems (Nocon et al., 2017).
In 2018, I recognised an opportunity to use the skills and knowledge gained through studying Physical Education at The University of Edinburgh to improve mental health, develop resilience and assist social integration in refugee children through sport. In preparation for teaching at a refugee camp in Greece over the summer, I carried out an extensive review of the literature relating to trauma informed disaster interventions. From this, I created a trauma- informed multi- activity sports program called Play for Hope that aimed to prepare young people with the skills and knowledge to thrive in a foreign land and to support their healthy psychosocial development. This programme involved daily yoga sessions, framed with the evaluation and discussion of emotions and feelings. We also organised football and volleyball training which focused on goal setting, critical thinking and cooperation. This slowly built up to weekly tournaments, carefully monitored and supported with ‘cool down’ areas for conflict management. Moreover, there were several culturally intrinsic activities in the programme, including playground games common in Iraq and Syria.
For my final year research investigation on the MA Physical Education Programme at the University of Edinburgh, I aimed to explore the experiences of young people from the perspectives of the teachers. I chose not to interview the young people directly at this stage due to language barriers and their current levels of vulnerability to stress and anxiety. Using qualitative methods, including face to face teacher interviews, graphic elicitation and participant observations, I gathered data relating to the young refugees engagement in the daily sessions for a 2 month period
The results of this study initially highlighted the prevalence of inter-cultural conflict that existed on the camp, resulting in physical altercations and violent outbursts. The development of social competencies including emotional regulation and conflict resolution through Play for Hope was seen to lead to more positive outcomes, with the perception that there were fewer violent outbursts and an increase in evasive or avoidance behaviour as opposed to physical altercations. Having a clear structure to each session and the inclusion of ‘cool down areas’ and strategies to deal with emotional difficulties were essential to this outcome.
Importantly, while competitive sports were a great source of joy and socialisation for children, they also presented challenges to those young people whose trauma has left them in a constant state of arousal. They seemed less able to cope with the complex emotional demands of competitive sports and left them vulnerable to further disturbance and impediment to recovery.
The teachers interviewed perceived that the programme allowed the children to develop a sense of purpose and responsibility, and their physical competence improved as well as self-esteem and confidence. However, further research working directly with the young people is required to support this claim.
Sport plays a prominent role in the work of the UN and other international bodies to bring positive value to children’s lives, especially for the growing number of youths living in refugee camps around the world. The results of my investigation would suggest that such movements from the UN are a fundamental part of responses to displacement. However, the foundation of such interventions must include sufficient evaluation of participants needs and levels, the communities values, and be supported with long and short term aims for participants development. This research demonstrates the possibility of sport to foster positive child development through community centred intervention.
A focus on the ‘how’ of meaningful PE in primary schools by Stephanie Beni
Stephanie Beni is a doctoral student studying physical education at Brock University in Canada. She also teaches physical education part-time to private and home schooled students. She is a member of the Learning About Meaningful Physical Education (LAMPE) research team based in Ireland and Canada. Her current research interests lie in identifying practical pedagogical strategies by which practitioners may promote a focus on meaningful experiences in physical education and physical activity contexts and in teachers’ professional learning in physical education.
A Focus on the How of Meaningful PE in Primary Schools
In his 2019 Cagical Lecture Address at the AIESEP World Congress, Mikael Quennerstedt (2018) highlighted the need for a focus on the why, what, and how of physical education (PE) in order to promote PE experiences for students that are both educative and meaningful. With the topic of meaningfulness in PE gaining interest in recent years, both the why and what of meaningful PE have been well articulated (Metheny, 1969; Kretchmar, 2006, 2007; Beni, Fletcher, Ní Chróinín, 2017). However, the how – specific pedagogical strategies by which teachers might prioritize an emphasis on meaningfulness – has remained somewhat elusive. This gap in understanding how to promote meaningfulness in PE is the focus of this research.
Using a collaborative self-study approach, Tim, Déirdre and I examined my experience of attempting to prioritize meaningfulness for my students in primary PE. The study took place during a 16-lesson unit on striking and fielding games in my classroom in a small private school in Southern Canada where privately- and home-schooled students of a range of ages (7-14 years) were integrated into the same PE class. Six students submitted exit slips and four participated in one-on-one interviews. Tim acted as my critical friend – reading and responding to my twice-weekly journal entries.
From the outset of the unit I planned for a prioritization on meaningfulness by emphasising five features of meaningful experiences we had identified through our review of literature (outlined below). Importantly, I made my prioritization on meaningfulness through these features explicit to my students and welcomed them to be part of the process of working toward their inclusion in our classroom. A brief summary of the particular pedagogical strategies I used to promote each of these features is highlighted in the table below:
Positive Social Interactions | • Varying group selection methods (student-vs-teacher selected; random-vs-purposeful) • Providing opportunities for individual, partner, and group work • Allowing students space to ‘struggle’ through learning to manage interactions with peers • Promoting a positive teacher-student relationship by listening to and incorporating students’ ideas |
Fun | • Including students in design of play-based activities • Utilizing elements of TGfU and Sport Education teaching models • Hosting a culminating tournament and festival |
Increasing Motor Competence | • Including contextualized skill-development activities in each lesson • Promoting a focus on tactical understanding of the game category • Allowing students to design skill development activities or choose from several options • Allowing team-led practice opportunities |
Appropriate Challenge | • Modifying games and activities to suit the needs of all learners • Gradually shifting responsibility for making modifications onto students • Allowing students to make choices regarding their level of challenge • Promoting personal goal setting over externally referenced competition |
Personally Relevant Learning | • Incorporating skills (physical, cognitive, social) emphasised in each lesson in a culminating activity • Explicitly helping students make connections between their learning and their lives beyond the classroom • Utilising autonomy-supportive strategies (e.g. allowing choice, involving students in decision-making processes) |
Importantly, my students responded very positively to the use of these strategies. It is our hope that this paper offers some practical guidelines for practitioners interested in prioritizing meaningfulness in primary PE in an attempt to promote educative experiences.
References
Beni, S., Fletcher, T., & Ní Chróinín, D. (2017). Meaningful experiences in physical education and youth sport: A review of the literature. Quest, 69(3), 291–312.
Kretchmar, R. S. (2006). Ten more reasons for quality physical education. Journal of Physical Education. Recreation & Dance, 77(9), 6–9.
Kretchmar, R. S. (2007). What to do with meaning? A research conundrum for the 21st century. Quest, 59, 373–383.
Quennerstedt, M. (2018). Physical education and the art of teaching: Transformative learning and teaching in physical education and sport pedagogy. Cagigal Scholar Lecture presented at the AIESEP World Congress, Edinburgh, UK.
Students as consumers or co-producers in outsourced Health and Physical Education? Blog by Dr. Leigh Sperka
Dr Leigh Sperka is an Associate Lecturer in the School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences at The University of Queensland. Her research focuses on the outsourcing of education. This includes investigating decision-making around the practice, how outsourcing impacts curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, and student perspectives of outsourced lessons. In this blog, she discusses a key finding from a paper presented at the 2018 AIESEP World Congress in Edinburgh. This paper has since been published in the Sport, Education and Society Special Edition ‘Creating thriving and sustainable futures in physical education, health and sport’. The full paper can be accessed here.
Students as consumers or co-producers in outsourced Health and Physical Education?
There has been a growing number of studies about the prevalence of outsourcing in Health and Physical Education (HPE) internationally (see Sperka & Enright, 2018). To date, however, relatively little research has been conducted on students’ experiences in outsourced HPE lessons (Kirk & Colquhoun, 1989; Powell 2015; Tinning & Kirk, 1991). This is concerning not only because students are the primary stakeholders in the educational experience but also because it has been argued that corporate involvement redefines education and repositions students in the educative process (Powell & Gard, 2015). It was therefore necessary to undertake a study that explored students’ positioning in, and perspectives of, outsourced HPE.
Focus groups were conducted with 25 Year Eight students (age 14 years) at an independent co-educational secondary school in Australia that was delivering the ‘Cardio Tennis’ component of Tennis Australia’s Tennis in Secondary Schools Program. Each focus group had either three or four participants and topics for discussion included experiences and learning in HPE in general and in the Cardio Tennis unit specifically. Observations of the Cardio Tennis lessons, which were co-taught by a HPE Teacher and a Tennis Coach, were also completed.
While there was heterogeneity in students’ perspectives on outsourced HPE, we found that the Year Eight students were positioned as ‘active consumers’ but ‘passive learners’ (Ball, 2004) in the Cardio Tennis lessons. They were ‘consumers’ in two distinct ways. Firstly, they were positioned as consumers of education itself. Both the HPE Teacher and the Tennis Coach controlled the enactment of the Cardio Tennis unit, imparting structured and pre-determined knowledge to the students rather than engaging with their voices and encouraging processes of curriculum and assessment negotiation. Secondly, and directly connected to the outsourced nature of the unit, these students were also consumers of the products, services, and philosophies being sold by Tennis Australia. Importantly, many of these students were critical consumers as they were able to recognise the impact that outsourced lessons had on teaching and learning in HPE.
In this paper we advocate for the protection of the educative and socially just intent of the subject through a reconceptualisation of the student as ‘co-producer’ in the educational experience. This would involve more dialogic processes where students’ distinct perspectives are elicited and responded to. In this case, the HPE Teacher was arguably best positioned to interpret, communicate, and bridge the interests of Tennis Australia, the school, and the students.
Overall, this study highlighted how crucial it is to seek out students’ voices and perspectives on outsourced HPE and demonstrated that more research in this area is warranted.
References
Ball, S. (2004). Education for sale! The Commodification of Everything? Paper presented at the King’s Annual Education Lecture, London.
Kirk, D., & Colquhoun, D. (1989). Healthism and physical education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 10(4), 417-434. doi:10.1080/0142569890100403
Powell, D. (2015). “Part of the solution”?: Charities, corporate philanthropy and healthy lifestyles education in New Zealand primary schools. Charles Sturt University.
Powell, D., & Gard, M. (2015). The governmentality of childhood obesity: Coca-Cola, public health and primary schools. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 36(6), 854-867. doi:10.1080/01596306.2014.905045
Sperka, L., & Enright, E. (2018). The outsourcing of health and physical education: A scoping review. European Physical Education Review, 24(3), 349-371. doi:10.1177/1356336×17699430
Tinning, R., & Kirk, D. (1991). Daily physical education: Collected papers on health based physical education in Australia. Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University Press.
Think before you cut… Are physical education and the arts the glue that holds the school together?
Enrique García Bengoechea is a Dean’s Research Fellow in Physical Activity and Health in the Faculty of Education and Health Sciences at the University of Limerick in Ireland. In this blog, he discusses the results of his research that investigated the relationship between different curricular activities and school engagement.
Think before you cut… Are physical education and the arts the glue that holds the school together?
School physical education is often placed outside of the subject areas considered as ‘core academic subjects’. This has prompted leading experts and professional associations in Europe, Canada, the United States and Australia to release position papers and documents that advocate for physical education as a unique and essential learning area focused on educational purposes and assert that all young people in schools are entitled to quality experiences in this area (Crum, 2017; Physical and Health Education Canada, 2017; SHAPE America, 2015; The Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 2014). Similar to physical education, curricular arts programs are often perceived as marginal and therefore susceptible to cuts during periods of economic restraint.
With a few exceptions, studies that include curricular factors when investigating influences on students’ engagement with the school are surprisingly absent from the literature. In light of this, we recently conducted a study to assess pupils’ experience in a range of subjects by asking them to rate how much they enjoyed the subjects. We also analysed data to determine how parents, teachers and peers influenced the pupils’ engagement with school. We used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth – a long-term study of Canadian children that follows development and wellbeing from birth. Those taking part (aged 12-15 years) were asked to rate their enjoyment of arts education, language arts, mathematics, physical education and science. We used logistic regression procedures to examine the link between enjoyment of subjects and school engagement. We accounted for factors such as gender, parental encouragement, peer relations, perceptions of teachers, and academic performance. We also assessed participation in a variety of extracurricular activities both in and outside of school (Bengoechea, Lorenzino & Gray, 2019).
Overall, the findings suggest that pupils who enjoy physical education and the arts take part in school life more fully than those who do not. All factors considered, for 12 and 13 year olds, enjoyment of physical education was the greatest contributor to feeling connected to school. Taking part in school-based extracurricular art, drama or music activities was, along with feelings of connection to peers, the most important contributor to school engagement for 14 and 15 year olds. As expected, enjoyment of the different academic subjects was generally associated with greater feelings of connection to school. However, of all curricular factors considered in our study, enjoyment of physical education and arts education were the strongest contributors to pupil engagement in both age groups.
Curricular factors, and in particular the quality of pupils’ experience in physical education and arts education, may be more important than previously recognized in terms of understanding and promoting their engagement with school during adolescence. The findings of our study emphasize the importance of physical education and the arts— subjects typically considered less essential academically—in the school curriculum, particularly in the key transition from primary to secondary school. Findings provide also support for the role of participation in extracurricular activities and after school programmes in fostering school engagement in adolescence.
How can we interpret these findings? For the time being, I think that the more holistic nature of physical education and arts education, compared to other academic subjects, may explain some of the observed associations between curricular factors and pupils’ engagement with school. However, no matter how encouraging these initial findings are, we need more research, particularly using longitudinal and mixed methods designs, to further tease out the relationships of curricular and extracurricular factors with pupils’ engagement and inform the design of school-based interventions and programmes to promote this developmental asset among young people.
References
Bengoechea, E.G., Lorenzino, L., & Gray, S. (2019). Not academic enough? Enjoyment of physical education and arts education and school engagement in early and middle adolescence. Retos, 35, 301-309. https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/article/view/63700/41411
Crum, B. (2017). How to win the battle for survival as a school subject? Reflections on justification, objectives, methods and organization of PE in schools of the 21st century. Retos, 31, 238 -244.
Physical and Health Education Canada (2017). Time to move! Retrieved from http://www.phecanada.ca/sites/default/files/advocacy_tools/TimetoMoveEnglish_crop.pdf
SHAPE America-Society of Health and Physical Educators. (2015). Physical education is an academic subject [position statement]. Reston, VA: Author.
The Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (2014). The importance of the Health and Physical Education learning area in schools [position statement]. Retrieved from https://www.achper.org.au/documents/item/394
Uncovering traditional masculine discourses in physical education by Jennifer Roberts
Introduction
Jennifer Roberts was a PhD student at the University of Edinburgh. In her secondary school-based ethnographic work, she explored the experiences of adolescent girls in physical education (PE). In doing so, she uncovered how PE in contemporary times remains a space where traditional masculine discourses pervade and create unfair, unequal and unjust learning experiences for girls. This blog presents a selection of her key findings.
Selected findings
Jennifer’s work revealed that historical notions of masculine strength and skill prevail in PE, promoting the idea that gender inequalities are a biological fact rather than a social construction, and used as evidence and justification to optically center boys as successful while simultaneously marginalizing girls. She describes an example of this in a co-ed rugby lesson she observed. All of the students were given the option of participating in full contact rugby or non-contact rugby. All the boys in the class chose full contact rugby while all but three of the girls chose the other non-contact option. Subsequently, the three girls who chose to participate in full contact rugby were rejected by the boys, refusing to pass the ball to them, generally excluding them from the lesson. When asked later in an interview about the boys’ disruption to inclusion for the girls, the PE teacher suggested that the girls would need to work harder to prove themselves to the boys as skilled team players. However, this was extremely difficult for the girls, made more difficult by the fact that they had limited access to discourses of success. For example, those who attempted to display or celebrate their athletic skills were often labelled as ‘show offs’, a form of gender block that policed the girls to censure each other and limit their expectations in PE.
Another key finding was the visible lack or representation of women in the PE context. For example, a football booklet was created as a resource for pupils and teachers. In this booklet, there were 14 pictures of white masculinsed male footballers and only one white feminised player. Jennifer highlights that girls make meaning about who is valuable and worthy in PE based on who is optically centred and represented as legitimate. In this context, it appears as though value and worth are assigned to the boys, especially when it comes to playing football.
Finally, there was a lack of awareness by the teachers of their own gender expectations in PE and school sport. For example, a PE teacher explained in an interview his understanding of girls’ resistance to participating in team sports. He described the girls’ complaints about not being passed the ball by the boys in basketball as ‘learned-helpless’. He stated that they create their own barriers to participation, and that it is difficult to break those barriers.
In light of these findings, it is clear that the barriers to the game for girls in PE are more than ‘learned helplessness.’ In PE, the girls were inadvertently encouraged to learn their limitations to power and success, had fewer opportunities to display agency and learned that their failures were due to lack of effort. Consequently, there is a need for future research to shift the focus away from girls and turn towards teachers in an attempt to raise their awareness of their own gendered expectations in PE. This may be achieved if more critical and empowering pedagogies are adopted by PE teachers. For example, there is much promise in critical pedagogies such as the Activist Approach (Oliver and Kirk, 2015), an approach that aims to make PE better for girls by providing them the space to ‘identify, critique and negotiate their self-identified barriers to valuing the physically active life’ (Oliver and Kirk, 2015; p 2). Essential to teachers’ successful uptake of such an approach, is their ability to identify and critique their own gendered perceptions. Indeed, in light of the findings presented in this blog, the success of the Activist Approach might be less to do with empowering girls, and more to do with educating teachers about the social, societal and cultural challenges that young girls’ face. This may provide them with the resources to challenge the status quo and to work with the girls to create fairer, more equal and liberating experiences.
For more information about the Activist approach, click here.
References
Oliver, K.L and Kirk, D., (2015). Girls, Gender and Physical Education: An Activist Approach. London.
Critical Thinking: Creating Meaning in Physical Education (PE) by Denise Dewar and Sue Weir
Denise and Sue are seconded teaching fellows at the University of Edinburgh. While working in schools, they both encountered initiatives aimed at the development of thinking skills. These experiences evolved into a project about ‘critical thinking’ and exploring how these ways of working could be fostered in PE settings and beyond. This blog reports on key insights from their collective self-study that has tracked the impact of their efforts to introduce critical thinking to undergraduate PE students. As part of the PERF’s Practitioner Inquiry (PINQ) Project, their research has been guided by LaBoskey’s key elements for self-study (2004).
Critical Thinking: Creating Meaning in Physical Education (PE)
Critical thinking is an amorphous term (Tan, 2017). It has numerous interpretations on both its definition and on the processes involved in developing critical thinking. Most definitions highlight the connections to the upper three levels of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy: analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These forms of thinking skills have been associated with a number of ‘Critical thinking’ learner dispositions including; open and fair mindedness, flexibility of thought, inquisitiveness and willingness to take risks (Lai, 2011).
Within the PE literature, critical thinking is a term first popularised by McBride (1992). He viewed PE as an ideal setting to develop critical thinking, which he defined as:
Reflective thinking that is used to make reasonable and defensible decisions about movement tasks or challenges (p112)
The short term focus within this quotation can be seen in the way in which any critical thinking is applied to the immediate tasks and challenges within a class situation. Our own efforts, however, have been geared towards viewing critical thinking from both a short and long term perspective. As can be seen in the figure below (click on image to enlarge), pupils not only respond to unique movement problems and reflect on and justify the decisions they make in class, but are also encouraged to view PE critically as part of their overall physical activity habits and lifestyle.
One key driver for connecting with these longer term ambitions comes from Dewey’s (1933) work on ‘deep’ learning. He explores the connection between ‘thinking’ and ‘meaning’ to create what he termed ‘profound learning’. More recent research with a focus on ‘meaning’ has identified personal experience as a central feature. In the PE context, Beni et al (2016) explain how pupils with personalised experiences can feel more ‘meaningful’ connections to learning tasks, which are more likely to commit to a physically active lifestyle.
Enactment
Our knowledge of critical thinking initially developed through our reading and shared discussions with each other and with critical friends. Knowledge and understanding was further developed by piloting with the undergraduate PE teachers through lectures, seminars and practical workshops. Our lecture to second year students was included as a key part of the curriculum course and was followed by a seminar which allowed students to discuss their understanding of critical thinking and explore ideas for their teaching of core PE. Within practical workshops, fourth year students reflected on their own wider experiences of dance and chose a ‘purpose’ best suited to them, the students created a group performance based on these personal experiences. They then performed the dance, evaluated the performance collectively and then reflected on the thinking involved in the creative process.
Data were gathered through a mixed methods approach: pre and post workshop questionnaires with students together with our own individual and shared reflections with two experienced teacher educators acting as critical friends throughout the research process. In both years of the project we were surprised by the decisions students made when presented with choices in the lesson. This reinforced our belief in offering pupils opportunities to not only make decisions but also justify these decisions to gain more insight into them (McBride, 1992). Also, in the second year of the project, we felt we were more explicit in teaching thinking skills and dispositions within the workshops and using the language of thinking from the literature. The importance of reflection time was highlighted in collective reflections, as we felt students needed time to make sense of the task and the thinking process.
Student Experiences
From data collected following the second year of workshops all students were able to identify when they used thinking skills and dispositions within the session. We felt this indicated a deeper understanding of the concepts and tied in with our own reflections of being better able to ‘model critical thinking’ (McBride, 1992, p 118).
In harmony with our reflections, students also highly valued pupil reflection as a key component of critical thinking, with over half (52%) indicating that this would be an area of their own practice they would like to enhance.
Most students (93%) thought the session was made ‘meaningful’ with most of them connecting this to being given choices throughout the session, being able to express themselves freely and the nature of the session being sociable and enjoyable.
Concluding thoughts
As an ongoing longitudinal study, we have had some valuable findings so far. The responses from the students have been encouraging, particularly as all students recognise the importance of critical thinking within PE. In addition, as we have grappled with the key critical thinking concepts, our shared reflections have helped us make more sense of the non-linear nature of the design and enactment process of this type of project.
In the future, we will continue to integrate key components of critical thinking in the gymnastics element of curriculum and pedagogy course for year 2 and will reflect individually and collectively on the enactment process. In addition, we will continue to share our critical thinking journey with other practitioners as part of the PINQ project and more widely.
References
Beni, S, Fletcher T and Ni Chronin, D (2016) Meaningful Experiences in Physical Education and Youth Sport: A review of literature, Quest, DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2016.1224192
LaBoskey, V. K. (2004). The methodology of self-study and its theoretical underpinnings. In J. J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. K. LaBoskey & T. Russell (Eds.), International handbook of self-study of teaching and teacher education practices (Vol. 2, pp. 817-869). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers
Lai, E.R. (2011) Critical thinking: a literature review. Research report. Pearson.
McBride, R. 1992. Critical thinking—An overview with implications for physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11: 112–125.
Tan, C (2017) Teaching Critical thinking: Cultural challenges and strategies in Singapore. British Educational research journal, 43:5 988-1002